Scheduling

1. Ensure equity of access, keeping in mind:
   • Not everyone needs the same amount of time to accomplish a given task;
   • Not everyone need necessarily use the same software;
   • Trying to ensure that all students use the computer for a certain period of time each week is counterproductive in terms of integration;
   • It is better to have fewer, longer periods than more frequent, shorter periods where little is accomplished;
   • With a class divided into five groups for instance, assign computer access one day per group per week;
   • Avoid periods which will be interrupted (e.g. by music);
   • Most advise against allowing those who finish other work first to use the computer, since these end up often being the same, more academically capable students. Thus weaker or more thorough students miss out;
      
2. Vary the usage and types of access.
   • Whole class work;
   • Group projects (grouping is considered in more detail in a later section);
   • Partners;
   • Individuals;
   • Open-scheduling (e.g. 10 minutes per person X the number of people).
      
3. For at risk or otherwise challenged students:
   • Instead of a frustrating higher level activity, they can work at the computer on a task related to what the rest of the class is doing;
   • It is preferable if the application provides immediate feedback;
   • A printout of the results of the session is helpful;
   • Applications that take advantage of the multi-sensory capabilities of the computer are recommended.
      
4. Have someone at the computer all of the time:
   • Mirroring the whole class activity;
     • rotate the person for different subjects throughout the year;
     • keep a log;
     • the work can be printed out and stuck in the appropriate exercise book;
   • Schedule students on a “pull-out” model (for example, during math if it is a strong suit) so that they can work independently on projects or other activities;
   • While the class is working at seat work, students can use the computer for an assigned task such as editing a piece of writing:
     • as students complete the task, they quietly notify the next on the list;
     • a list is kept on the board so the students know who is next;
     • students cross off their names when they are done so that the teacher can easily monitor the rate of progress and see who has or has not finished;
   • Schedule use during early morning, recess and lunch time.
      
5. Arrange access to more computers:
   • Rotate computer use with other teachers by making use of rolling carts which might require some careful scheduling. Some sources suggested that it might be more productive to have access to three computers for one term than one computer for all three terms.
   • Send students out to use other computers:
     • to the library;
     • to the resource centre;
     • to a vacant classroom when those students are at physical education or music.
   • Allocate computers according to classes that have projects in process, in keeping with the opinion of those who advocate giving more computers to those that use them more. This, however, might create negative feelings on the part of those that might lose their classroom computer, even if it is rarely used.

Record keeping/keeping track of turns

1. Keep track of everyone’s time at the computer, including what they were doing;
2. Organizing aids:
   • Use a journal to record usage. (see below).
   • Post sign-up (and sign-out) sheets next to the computer;
   • Use a pocket chart with a card for each student; they turn their cards over after a turn and when all are done, they start over;
   • Have a popsicle stick for each student and two jars, one labeled “Been There” the other labeled “Not Yet”. The students take the sticks out of one jar and put them in the other as they complete the work.

Journals

1. Each student keeps an individual computer journal to record various types of information which, among other benefits, can keep the student accountable. Such a journal could form the basis for a student’s personal user’s manual. Kahn (1998) suggests five categories of entries:
   • computer related information such as “how to” details. This can serve as an aid for the students in subsequent sessions with this software as well as a guide for the teacher in terms of what might need further clarification, either in terms of whole class instruction or the instruction sheet for the given activity.
   • vocabulary, either computer related (which might help to create a class computer glossary) or content related. Especially in the latter case, it might be a good idea to follow up with a large group discussion, using chart paper, perhaps, to build a class vocabulary list.
   • questions, which could be related to software procedures, for instance, or the content of the activity. Time should be allocated to discuss these questions since they often reflect a common need, even if only one person asks it.
   • web addresses with identifying information. Students could use the bookmark feature of the browser, but that does not always yield much information on what the site contains. In addition, the bookmark file could become quite unwieldy. There is also the possibility that the student might want to access the site from a different computer.
   • strategies or clues.
      
2. A classroom journal is kept, either on its own or in conjunction with the individual one. At the end of each computer session, students enter information about the particular activity in which they were engaged. It can help the teacher keep track of who did what but could be helpful in the evaluation of specific lessons and computer use and serve as a reminder for future use.
    
3. The teacher keeps a journal. Les Trésors de Martine (Larouche, 1998) contains an interesting example of an electronic, on-line version of a teacher’s class journal.

The Center or Station Approach

1. There were three different types of centres mentioned in which computer use figured as one of the scheduled activities. Often combinations of these types were employed in the same classroom. Frequently, use of this strategy was designed to free the teacher to work with individuals or specific groups. Many resources are available on using centres in the classroom as well as for developing cooperative learning techniques. (see Appendix C for on-line sources) This might more properly belong in the section that treats teaching methods, however, it is also the most commonly cited method of actually arranging time for the students to be at the computer.
   • Odds and ends, where different types of unrelated activities are scheduled;
   • Theme oriented, in which activities involving different subject areas are based on a central theme;
   • Project based, involving computer use as well as off-computer activities.
      
2. Tips on management
   • Having the desks already grouped in “islands” for groups to work together makes it easy to change from centre activity to other types of teaching approaches.
   • Provide extra tables to give students more space and a change of work place.
   • Students might be working collaboratively at a centre for a common purpose, working as a cooperative group on the same materials to be submitted individually or even doing totally individual work. Even when it comes to the computer station, the whole group might not always be at computer at once.
   • Numbering desks and tables facilitates movement.
   • Have the necessary materials assembled for each station and make sure that the students know what they need to bring with them.
   • Scheduling can vary from arranging centres on a regular basis throughout the week or devoting most of the day to rotating through the activities. A sample arrangement in one primary class involved stations of the “odds and ends” type, three to four times a week for 80-120 minutes a day. A timer was set for 20-30 minute sessions, with a two-minute warning for groups to finish up and move on to the next station. A 15 minute wrap-up period was arranged at the end of station time for students to work on what needed to be finished.
      
3. Since much centre activity involves cooperative or collaborative efforts, some ground work needs to be done to prepare the students:
   • The teacher should teach, practice and review cooperative learning rules, including effective communication techniques and decision-making strategies.
   • Emphasize mutual help and group ownership of the outcome of joint work.
   • Assign roles and rotate them in order to ensure more equitable access and development of skills.
   •  Sample computer roles as suggested in a primary school study, include:
     • keyboard operator;
     • screen monitor;
     • scribe (if note-taking is required);
     • tutor-consultant;
     • group manager.
        
4. Since one primary teacher found that younger students cannot handle rotating through centres as well as older students, she adopted an approach whereby the students work from a prioritized list of work, with instructions, written on the board. The students use the computer by rotation according to a prearranged schedule and an enrichment corner and a “help centre” are provided. Occasionally the children work in centres, on a personal choice basis, using a “passport” with stickers to indicate which work has been done.

Group work

Establish groups as a basic means of operating within the classroom, not just for computer work, however, one must be prepared for an attendant rise in the volume of “noise” and "activity" in the classroom;

1. Reported advantages to organizing the class in this manner were:
   • It encourages the simultaneous development of academic, personal and social goals.
   • Group work promotes synergy, the “bringing together of separate parts to make a whole of greater potential.” (Eraut, page 8)
   • It facilitates the creation of an atmosphere of cooperative work, peer tutoring and team spirit.
   • It helps maintain discipline.
   • It helps control student comings and goings.
      
2. General tips include:
   • Set up groups of 4-5;
   • Preferably,  seat them together;
   • Change the groups after a period of time to allow the students to spend time with a variety of work mates.
      
3. For younger students especially, it might be necessary to incorporate strategies for encouraging cooperation, for example a point system with a reward attached, whereby the students gain points for such things as having work ready on time, being prepared for class and working cooperatively. The reward might be something specific or a “free coupon” as one teacher used, by which the students could “rent” classroom items overnight or spend 15 minutes in the library, at the computer or in the art corner.
    
4. Strategies and implications involved in creating groups:
   • If students are left to chose groups themselves, it often leads to single gender groups or left-over social isolates or less able students;
   • In a study entitled Group work with Computers in British Primary Schools, the researchers determined that there were four key factors to be considered in group composition:
     • gender,
     • friendship (they did not have to be good friends to work effectively together, just not enemies);
     • ability;
     • personality (the most important issue in group dynamics, not ability).
   • A sociogram can help determine which combinations might work. This would involve, for example:
     • handing out sheets to the students which contain a small circle in the centre, with two larger concentric circles outside of the first;
     • the students are asked to write their own names in the small circle;
     • in the circle next to it, they write the names of those people with whom they would most like to work;
     • the next circle would contain the names of students with whom they would not mind working;
     • outside of the circles they would write the names of those with whom they would prefer not to work at all.
   • The same British study mentioned above found that successful group work depends on combination of:
     • classroom ethos;
     • training for group work;
     • group composition.
   • There should be at least one computer proficient member in the group, to ensure that they:
     • do not spend too much time sorting out trivial problems;
     • maintain progress, continuity and a sense of achievement;
     • work in the “zone of proximal development” (Vygotsky, cited in Eraut, 1994).
   • Each group should also have a low ability member, which helps:
     • make people explain and understand better;
     • improve chemistry by providing a calming influence and diminishing dominance.
        
5. The optimal number for working at computer might be affected by the nature of the software and the task:
   • If using pairs, put needy children with good workers, not necessarily high achievers. Although working in pairs is an often used strategy, it is not preferred by all:
     • dominance is more predominant and harder to remedy;
     • the focus of attention is more on the computer than the work;
     • it takes longer to get turns; the delay causes lack of continuity;
     • there is less overall time at the computer;
     • collaboration is limited;
   • Groups of three to five were the preferred structure, although marginalism, a situation in which one child becomes a non-participant, is more likely in groups larger than three:
     • there is more time spent at non-keyboarding roles, which is desirable since the person at the keyboard appears to do less thinking;
     • it allows a better distribution of expertise;
     • there is an increase in cross-gender collaboration;
     • there is more collaboration in general;
     • it provides greater idea-generating capacity.
        
6. Making computer time more effective and efficient:
   • Ensure that preplanning has been done and that all necessary materials are ready;
   • First drafts can be hand-written; even basic first draft revisions can be done away from the computer;
   • Leave editing and formatting for last.
      
7. Groups should share their work with the whole class and in cases in which computer work is involved, a projection device is recommended to allow everyone to see the computer display. Such an activity serves as a good clue-up exercise as it ties in common experiences and broadens the students' learning experiences. It is also a useful means of reuniting a class that has been working separately.